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The history of structural engineering dates back to at least 2700 BC when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because it is a structural form which is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads). Another notable engineering feat from antiquity stiil in use today is the qanat water management system. Qanat technology developed in the time of the Medes, the predecessors of the Persian Empire (modern-day Iran〔Ahmad Y Hassan, (Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part Ii: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering )〕〔Qanat, Kariz and Khattara: Traditional Water Systems in the Middle East - By Peter Beaumont, Michael E. Bonine, Keith Stanley〕〔The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development and Technology by Hans E. Wulff〕 which has the oldest and longest Qanat (older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km)〔p. 4 of 〕 that also spread to other cultures having had contact with the Persian. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No theory of structures existed and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.〔 No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behaviour of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the industrial revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see History of concrete). The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have been developing ever since. ==Early structural engineering developments== The recorded history of structural engineering starts with the ancient Egyptians. In the 27th century BC, Imhotep was the first structural engineer known by name and constructed the first known step pyramid in Egypt. In the 26th century BC, the Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed in Egypt. It remained the largest man-made structure for millennia and was considered an unsurpassed feat in architecture until the 19th century AD. The understanding of the physical laws that underpin structural engineering in the Western world dates back to the 3rd century BC, when Archimedes published his work ''On the Equilibrium of Planes'' in two volumes, in which he sets out the ''Law of the Lever'', stating: Archimedes used the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, paraboloids, and hemispheres. Archimedes's work on this and his work on calculus and geometry, together with Euclidean geometry, underpin much of the mathematics and understanding of structures in modern structural engineering. The ancient Romans made great bounds in structural engineering, pioneering large structures in masonry and concrete, many of which are still standing today. They include aqueducts, thermae, columns, lighthouses, defensive walls and harbours. Their methods are recorded by Vitruvius in his De Architectura written in 25 BC, a manual of civil and structural engineering with extensive sections on materials and machines used in construction. One reason for their success is their accurate surveying techniques based on the dioptra, groma and chorobates. Centuries later, in the 15th and 16th centuries and despite lacking beam theory and calculus, Leonardo da Vinci produced many engineering designs based on scientific observations and rigour, including a design for a bridge to span the Golden Horn. Though dismissed at the time, the design has since been judged to be both feasible and structurally valid〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Renaissance Man )〕 The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid in the 17th century by Galileo Galilei, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton with the publication of three great scientific works. In 1638 Galileo published ''Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences'',〔Galileo, G. (Crew, H & de Salvio, A. (1954))〕 outlining the sciences of the strength of materials and the motion of objects (essentially defining gravity as a force giving rise to a constant acceleration). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to structural engineering, including the first attempts to develop a theory for beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the mathematical representation and design of building structures. This was followed in 1676 by Robert Hooke's first statement of Hooke's Law, providing a scientific understanding of elasticity of materials and their behaviour under load.〔Chapman, Allan. (2005)〕 Eleven years later, in 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', setting out his Laws of Motion, providing for the first time an understanding of the fundamental laws governing structures.〔Newton, Isaac;Leseur, Thomas; Jacquier, François. (1822)〕 Also in the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both independently developed the Fundamental theorem of calculus, providing one of the most important mathematical tools in engineering.〔Stillwel, J. (2002). p.159〕 Further advances in the mathematics needed to allow structural engineers to apply the understanding of structures gained through the work of Galileo, Hooke and Newton during the 17th century came in the 18th century when Leonhard Euler pioneered much of the mathematics and many of the methods which allow structural engineers to model and analyse structures. Specifically, he developed the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation with Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) circa 1750 - the fundamental theory underlying most structural engineering design. Daniel Bernoulli, with Johann (Jean) Bernoulli (1667–1748), is also credited with formulating the theory of virtual work, providing a tool using equilibrium of forces and compatibility of geometry to solve structural problems. In 1717 Jean Bernoulli wrote to Pierre Varignon explaining the principle of virtual work, while in 1726 Daniel Bernoulli wrote of the "composition of forces".〔Dugas, René (1988). p.231〕 In 1757 Leonhard Euler went on to derive the Euler buckling formula, greatly advancing the ability of engineers to design compression elements.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「History of structural engineering」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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